Visitors are allowed to move Only the central path has been marked by Xiloskalo in St. Roumeli and vice versa.

The geology of the White Mountains (text: Dr. G. Fasoulas, “Φουρόγατος” Magazine, Issue 54, Saturday, July 10, 2004).

The White Mountains are white indeed! This is obvious to everyone gazing the mountain range of western Crete from a distance. Regardless the orientation of approaching the region, or the season of the year, white is the color of the mountain peaks. In the winter, of course, there is the shining white of the snow that coats the summits. When this is absent, the summits seem white, again, because of the greyish-white marble that outcrops bare of vegetation in the horizon.

The White Mountains is the largest mountain range of Crete and is formed in total from marble, limestone and dolomite - rocks whose main component is calcium carbonate. In total, they were formed million years ago, in the sea from the dissolved calcium carbonate which was swept away from the earth’s rocks by rainfall.

The picture of the mountain range gives the dynamic impression of a fist that pierces the earth and sticks up in the sky – a characteristic that is due to the geological forces that lifted violently the rocks, some million years ago and continue today. In the last 5 million years this uplift, compared to the current sea level, was over 1.500 meters.

The vertical route of the rocks of the White Mountains carved deeply by the flow of surface water created large gorges, as the impressive Samaria, and large caves like Gourgouthakas which reaches 1.100 meters depth from the earth’s surface. All these are the result of the karstic erosion and the tectonic uplift of the land.

The region’s rocks

The geology of the region could have been monotonous, considering the fact that compared to the rest of Crete, the rocks present are not diverse. However, the processes that acted on them were so variable and intense, that their final result, the current terrain, is impressive.

In total, the core of the mountain range is comprised primarly of two main groups of rocks:  Plattenkalk limestone and Tripali. The most important and the one that occupies the largest volume, is Plattenkalk limestone. These are the rocks that form the ridge (backbone) on which all the other groups of rocks are found, and in addition, they are the deepest rocks that are known in Crete, since we do not know what lays underneath them. Although in Crete the age of this group of rocks dates from approximately 300 million years ago, on the White Mountains only the upper parts of the group are present. Therefore, on the edge of the mountain range, greyish dolomite and limestone, of 200 million years, are present, while on the core, younger rocks appear.

One of the most characteristic rocks is stromatolitic dolomite, a dark colored rock with banded iron deposits strips, created by stromatolithes - organisms living in anoxic waters. These organisms that absorb the dissolved iron oxides and release oxygen, played a key role in the appearance of oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere 2 billion years ago. Parts of these rocks are found inside the Gorge of Samaria, mainly in the upper and western part and in the form of boulders in the riverbed.

In many parts of the mountain range, and particularly, on the top of Gkigkilos, yellowish shales with thin sandstone layers, cover the stromatolitic dolomite. These layers that are named after this characteristic summit, mark a major geological event, 160 million years ago. At that time, the ocean bed, where these rocks were formed, started to deepen at a fast rate, as a result of the removal of the lithospheric plates of Africa and Europe.  The result of this phenomenon was the formation of the typical group of rocks that dominates in the mountain range, and inside the Gorge of Samaria, the squamous, greyish-blue limestone, with the distinctive white stripes or parts of cherts.

This limestone which was considered for centuries a fine construction material on the island has on its base spherical or elliptical parts of white pyrite, which according to some researchers, could be due to sponges living on the seabed, while this was relatively shallow. On the upper parts, the rock is comprised of thinner plates that can be easily separated from each other, and are alternated with stripes (ταινίες) and complex, in design, shapes of white pyrites. Both the limestone and the pyrites were formed from dissolved calcium and silicon salts in deep water.

On top of the Plattenkalk limestone, at some certain parts of the mountain range, there are very small flysch layers, deposited 30 million years ago, closing (ending) the formation process of the Plattenkalk limestone rocks.

Apart from the Plattenkalk limestone rocks, there are some other groups of rocks in the White Mountains. These are the recrystallised limestone of Tripali, the shale, mainly, rocks of the Phyllite-Quartzite group, and the Tripoli limestone. The Tripali rocks appear only in western Crete and are the distinctive white limestone of the peaks of the White Mountains that cover the Plattenkalk limestone, or the brecciated limestone with the cavities encountered from the village of Lakkoi until Omalos, or at Mount Tripali, on the east of the mountain range. Their age is between 200 and 140 million years.

The rest of the rocks, also cover the Plattenkalk limestone, but are rarest, found mainly on the east and west margins of the mountain range, even though they cover larger areas in other parts of Crete.

The route through Samaria Gorge starts from the rocks of Trypali at Xyloskalo, at the lower rocks of the Plattenkalk limestone group. In addition to the plattenkalk limestones, we encounter the schists of Gigilos and the stromatolite dolomite at the end of the steps. The rocks from about the halfway point of the Gorge until the exit at Ayia Roumeli are made up only of Plattenkalk limestone.

History and formation of the Gorge

The limestone, and generally all the rocks of calcium carbonate are very hard and resistant, but are easily dissolved by rainwater, like heated butter. This is the process of karstic erosion, where the acids of the surface water erode (melt and destroy) the limestone, releasing the calcium carbonate they contain. Through this procedure the plateaus, caves and gorges are formed, together with the other smaller shapes on the earth’s surface. Of course, the process of the formation of the karstic shapes in the White Mountains, including the gorges, was not so simple.

From the moment the rocks were formed in the sea until today, they were affected by complicated processes that started with the collision of the African and the European plate. Those were compressed, folded and uplifted, creating mountain ranges.

The rocks of the White Mountains, however, and particularly, the plattenkalk limestone, were covered, initially, from a large volume of rocks exceeding 40 km in thickness. Due to the pressure and heat developed, they were transformed into marbles, became lighter, and then suddenly sprang to the surface scattering the other rocks. Great cracks fragmented the continuity of the rock and defined the current form (shape) of the White Mountains.

The uplift of the rocks in their current place began 13 million years ago, but was more intense in the last 5. The movement of the rocks took place on the cracks, like the crack of Xiloskalo, on top of which the path meanders, which uplifted the area on the north of the gorge, or the Palaiochora-Sfakia crack that uplifted the total region of the White Mountains and triggered the development of all the area’s gorges.

Therefore, the tectonic movements continued uplifting the land against the sea, forcing the water of the streams to dig deeper into the rocks, eroding them at the same time, resulting in the creation of gorges perpendicular to the direction of the cracks. The impression that the gorges follow along and in depth older cracks is false, and this can be seen clearly from the narrow parts of the area’s gorges (e.g. Imbros, Samaria), where the rocks continue undisturbed on both sides of the gorge.

The fluctuations of the sea, however, controlled the behavior of the surface water. Therefore, when the sea level increased, which occurred many times during the interglacial periods, the stream water instead of digging, deposited material on the bank of the gorges, creating the terraces. These can be encountered around the old village of Samaria, and at the exit of the gorge, as well. There, probably during the last interglacial period, the water deposited gravel and pebbles staring from the Iron Gates until the coast. The last rise of the land (or drop of the sea level) forced the water to dig again its deposits and to create a smaller gorge, of approximately 6 meters in depth, and 1 meter wide that can be seen clearly after the kiosk at the gorge exit.

Charalampos G. Fasoulas, Ph. D.

(This is the text of the presentation of Charalampos G. Fasoulas, Ph. D. researcher of the Natural History Museum of Crete, at the Seminar on the White Mountains and its Gorges, organized by the Ecological Initiative of Chania in collaboration with the Department of Environmental Education, Directorate of Primary Education of Chania, on the 7^th of February 2004, at the 16^th-17^th Primary School of Chania, in the frames of the Program “Volunteerism and Environment”, implemented by the Ecological Initiative of Chania, for the monitoring, protection, and promoting of the gorges of Dictamos and Machairi, the lakes Agia and Kournas, and the coasts of the northern axis of Chania).

In the wider region of the White Mountains, approximately 650 floral taxa have been recorded.

The floristic list, of the White Mountains, however, has not yet been completed, as this is confirmed by the description of a new species, Anthemis samariensis (Turland N.J.), a perennial chasmophyte, discovered in 2007, on a steep slope of the White Mountains, between the summits of Melidaou and Avlimanakos. In the White Mountains, 25 stenoendemic species (species exclusive to the area in which they grow) and 97 endemic species of Crete are encountered. The half of the endemic species of Crete, are found in the region of the White Mountains.

Characteristic species are:

• Bupleurum kakiskalae, a perennial species that grows at the site of Kakia Skala of summit Linoseli, lives up to 12 years, flowers and produces fruits, only once and then it dies. (monocarpic)
• The orchid Cephalanthera cucullata, a perennial herbaceous plant with short creeping rhizome, found at altitudes of 700-1500 meters.

·         Nepeta sphaciotica, a perennial aromatic shrub and endemic of the White Mountains, which grows only on the northern side of summit Svourichti, at altitudes of 2200-2300 meters, and nowhere else in the world.

In the region, aromatic, medicinal and edible species are also encountered:

• Malotera (mountain tea) Sideritis syriaca subsp. syriaca, an endemic species of Crete.
• Marjoram (Origanum microphyllum), a phrygana with a characteristic scent.
• Petrofilia (Petromarula pinnata), a very beautiful endemic plant that grows on rocky slopes.
• Dittany or erontas (Origanum dictamnus), an endemic species, which is considered a medicine for many diseases, since ancient times.
• Agrambeli of the White Mountains (Clematis elisabethae – carolae) that grows only in two locations on Amoutsera (1850 m), and on eroded limestone slopes.
• Hypericum aciferum, a chasmophytic shrub, endemic to the White Mountains, that grows on coastal rocks in the area of Sfakia, between Sougia and Ayia Roumeli (Fournoti beach).
• Ranunculus radinotrichus, an endemic species of the White Mountains, small perennial plant that grows only on Mts Trocharis, Amoutsera, Kakovoli and Svourichti, at altitudes of 1850-2300 m.
• Anthemis samariensis, an endemic species of Crete, that was recently discovered (2007), on a steep slope of the White Mountains, between Mts Melidaou and Avlimanakou.
• Myosotis solange, an endemic and rare species of the White Mountains, that grows only in one location on Mount Agio Pneuma.
• Helichrysum heldreichii, an endemic species of the White Mountains, threatened and protected by P.D. 67/1981.
• Thlaspi zaffranii, an endemic species of the region, which has been recorded in three sites (Gkigkilos, Volakias, and Anopoli of Sfakia).
• Centaurea lancifolia, an endemic species of Crete, which populations are traced in 3 sites of the White Mountains. It is a chasmophyte that grows at altitudes of 1780-1850 m.
• Centranthus sieberii, a rare and endemic species of the White Mountains that grows in rocky sites of the mountainous and alpine zones.
• Cuscuta atrans, a parasitic species that grows on thorn bushes, and endemic  of the White Mountains.
• Cynoglossum sphacioticum that grows on rocky soils at high altitudes.
• Euphorbia rechingeri, dwarf endemic species of the White Mountains, that grows at high altitudes and on rocky soils and cracks.
• Onobrychis sphaciotica, a rare and endemic species of the White Mountains, that grows in rocky sites.

Source: Samaria National Park Management Body website

Samaria National Park plays host to a particularly rich fauna.

In the White Mountains, there have been identified 32 mammals, with the Cretan lesser white-toothed shrew to be the only endemic species, 3 amphibians, 11 reptiles, and approximately 200 bird species. The most characteristic are:

·   Agrimi, the cretan wild goat (Capra aegagrus cretica), which is the largest mammal on the island of Crete, belongs to the order of Artiodactyla. It is the species-symbol of the Gorge of Samaria and of the White Mountains generally, for the protection of which, mainly, the region was declared a National Park. Apart from that, it represents a symbol, not only of the White Mountains, but of the island of Crete, while it has been strongly related to the personality and temperament of the Cretans.

It is a species found in mountainous areas. Its biotopes range from dry mountains and alpine areas, to rocky sites with brushwood, near coniferous forests. A characteristic of the species ecology is its preference in areas with slopes greater than 30%. According to recent genetic analysis on tissues of agrimi, compared to sequences of wild and domestic caprines showed that the agrimi is not a subspecies of the wild goat of the Middle East, while it is closely related to the wild goats that were brought to the island by the first settlers, during the Neolithic period (Gila Kahila Bar-Gal, Patricia Smith, Eitan Tchernov, Charles Greenblatt, Pierre Ducos, Armelle Gardeisen and Liora Kolska Horwitz, Genetic evidence for the origin of the agrimi goat (Capra aegagrus cretica), Journal of Zoology (2002), 256:3:369-377 Cambridge University Press). Today, the population of the agrimi is restricted to the region of the White Mountains, while populations are preserved on the islands of Agioi Theodoroi, Moni, Siapenza, Agioi Pantes, and Atalandonisi.

·    Cretan white-toothed shrew (Croccidura zimmermani), a rare and not well studied species that lives at altitudes greater than 1.150 meters, although it can be found at lower altitudes, as well. It is the only endemic mammal species of Crete.

·    The Cretan wildcat (Felis sylvestris cretensis), is a species the name of which is surrounded by mystery. It is an animal that one cannot easily set eyes upon. It was considered to be an extinct species, until 1996, when scientists from the University of Perugia, working with the Natural History Museum of Crete, succeeded in capturing a live animal. It bears distinctive dark coloured rings on its tail and is considerably larger in size than the common cat. It is protected by the Washington Convention (CITES) on International Trade of Endangered Species.

·   The Crete Spiny Mouse (Acomys minοus), is a species whose european populations are concentrated in Crete.

·  The bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), is one of the rarest birds in Europe. It is a kind of vulture, with a wingspan reaching up to 2.80 meters. It bears a deep orange color on its breast and under parts, which is acquired by rubbing against calcareous rocks containing iron oxides. In areas with lack of rocks containing iron oxides, the breast and under parts of the bearded vulture are white. It is the only species in the world to feed almost entirely on bones, which it drops from a great height, in order to break them in smaller pieces, going after them in a spiraling descent. It then swallows the small bones whole and its stomach, which contains powerful gastric fluids, digests them easily. It is a species that prefers areas of high altitudes. The female lays two eggs, and incubates them for 55-57 days. Today, the bearded vulture survives only in Crete, while the White Mountains are honoured to play host to 2 of the 3 breeding pairs of the greek population.

·   The Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), is the most common type of vulture. It is a large and heavy bird of prey, with a wingspan of approximately 2.60 meters. It bears a bald head with a collar of short lanceolate feathers at the base of the neck. It flies in large slow circles, taking advantage of the warm updrafts. In Greece, it is estimated that live approximately 400 breeding pairs. The Griffon vulture feeds on dead animals (scavenger).

·   The spider Macrothele cretica, is an endemic species of the region and one of the few global protected invertebrates by the IUCN.

Source : Samaria National Park Management Body website